Political science and international relations -Paper 1- Western thinkers - Aristotle

*Plato first came to the conclusion that state is in bad shape and then formed his argument around this general conclusion whereas Aristotle went through various available particular data before coming to a conclusion as to whether a state is good or bad.

Introduction and his times:

Aristotle is considered one of the greatest philosophers of all time. Such can be attributed to his evolution of a scientific sense in to the political theory, which was until then dominated by philosophical view of Plato. Such scientific view was possible because of his experience in science through biology, medicine. Also being present in Greek, he was able to observe many different faces of politics around him, without which there could be no analysis possible.

Worked under various kings and learnt different features of the polity, economics and thus became a scholar in various fields of life. Also he was a prolific writer.

But while promoting the scientific side of Aristotle, which runs contrary to the Plato’s philosophical approach, it is equally important that Aristotle did have philosophical view of society and his politics was always based on Ethics.

Such ethics are possible because of the notion that state is a natural thing , whose emergence has at its root the interests of all people and such only ethical conduct by all, both general and Particular, can state succeed. Also state is prior to individual as Aristotle believed that no man can exist without the institution of state,Just as there would not be different parts of body if there was no life in the body that gives it that meaning.

For him this ethical view is one which can be obtained through practice and such the evolution of ethics in human society is closely linked to reason and practice through human interaction. Here it diverges from Plato, in that for him virtue/ethics is more of attaining the knowledge that which is constantly evolving or learnt through practice. An ideal form of ethics (form theory) exists and knowledge can help us achieve it.

While Aristotle accepts the presence of such Ideal form, he accepts the importance of matter (Which was just a shadow for Plato) in so far as it is the formed because of various elements constituting it, with form just activating it, guides it to its final form which is ethical. (This can be viewed in his emphasis on practice for achieving ethical end. Because the various intermediate traits which are considered matter are equally important for Aristotle, who guides him to the ethical end).

Aristotle and State:

*Presence of other associations rather than just the state.
*State is prior to individual and hence natural.
*State is self sufficing while family and village is not.
*state is not unity but unity in diversity (It is one of Unity for Plato, with state being the sole association)

Plato state stops being a state , when it fails at providing love and discipline for the guardian class.

For him state has a very close relationship with ethical being of humans. He considers state as natural in so far as it is the only possible way through which humans can develop into higher beings which are rational and ethical while serving their natural wants and also the development of family (he sees state as extension of family and thus when Plato talks about communism of family for guardian , his conception of state seems artificial to him).

As far as the concept of state is considered, his inductive method concluded state as something which arose to fulfill the material interests of men. In their sense, state is much more than just polity but is everything constituting education and blah and thus their focus on status as a mandatory element is only logical, as no Individual can exist in unison without some sort of associations.

Aristotle considered Plato’s state to be artificially created by Plato. This he based on the belief of evolution and growth of state from different stages of society and thus in a teleological study such as his, which believes that nature always works for some purpose, he probably believes that best possible state will be achieved through time and evolution, contrary to the radical and speculative character of Plato.

Both believe in ideas such as natural inequality (Man-Women, Son-Father, Slave-Free man), state being the only way for man to achieve his development and that the rational man would triumph over passionate man.

Justice:

*Justice if virtue in action (For both Aristotle and Plato). Truth is virtue but being truthful is Justice.
Justice is differentiated in that Aristotle’s was more of a right’s based when compared to duties based on Plato. Also his emphasis on rule of law, as can be understood by his more realistic theory, when compared to Plato’s theory of doing one’s duties.
He states about the importance of Distributive Justice (Rewards according to Work) and corrective justice (To transfer lack of justice from one person to another).  Plato’s theory lacks corrective justice and believes in man’s soul and his duties.
Basically, Plato’s justice is virtue in action which is taken for granted but for Aristotle it is not granted and hence the legal interpretation of justice.
His theory of class based society is wrong in the sense that it devoid certain class political power and state might act against the entrenched rulers. Plato probably knows this better than anyone and hence the various conditions.
Predicted end of slavery and considered it natural if humans were to live a fulfilling life.

Also he was against communism and common family, as he has seen family as a basic entity in providing virtues of cooperation, trust. Also his view of society is one based on Unity in Diversity contrary to Unity of Plato. While promoting private property he only supported the use of private property for common use.

Critique:

•His theory on slavery is more of a justification than an uninterested view of the available facts.

•Aristotle and his illiberal views on slavery (Considers natural) and women.

But his theory on family being the base of state and the importance of public-private divide is very much used.

Direct points:

1- Teleological: Man lives in society for development and state can provide him with that

Political Science and International realations - Western Thinkers - Plato

Born an Aristocrat which has its privileges in the Athenian society of Greece, Plato wanted to enter political life in his early days. But much has changed after his education under Socrates, who has imbibed in him a pursuit of truth  achieved through debate and dialogue.

Other factors such as the continuous war with Sparta (Peloponnesian War) which the Athens lost and the subsequent puppet governments that had emerged in Athens have further distanced himself from public life. The final blow came when his teacher, Socrates was sentenced to death for atheism.

This led for him to search for safety which prompted him to travel across Europe and Africa in which time he had tried to be the educator of many princes. While he finally arrived, he has contributed much to the literary work through various books, some of which such as Laws drew upon the contemporary political institutions and their working.

Plato’s philosophical though can be clearly understood in the context of his theory of forms, Ideas whereby he identifies that the World we live in is but a shadow of reality and whatever we see around us and their description is opinion. Knowledge of the real World, although cannot be seen right away can be taught.

The essential characteristics of Plato's theory of Forms would, thus, include: 

(a) There is a difference between 'Form' or 'Idea'; 'Knowledge' and 'Appearance'; 'Actual', or 'Opinion' as there is difference between the invisible world and the physically visible world. 

(b) The form is the ultimate object of appearance. 

(c) The actual world can attain the ideal world. 

(d) Knowledge can replace opinion and is attainable. 

(e) The visible world is the shadow of the real world. 

(f) What appears to be is not the Form, but is a form of the Form.”

Also the deductive method of philosophy that he uses forms certain notions about the society before hand and when seen through these pre conceived notions, the world seems imperfect and hence the need for an Ideal Society.

Theory of Justice – Specialization, hierarchy, Natural, Separation of conflict i.e. harmony through communism.

Theory of Justice:

 He placed overarching importance on justice which is thought to be holding the society together .While his theory of justice is based on performing one’s duties for the good of the society (It is at the same time a public virtue) and not mere adherence towards laws.Plato has towards the end in his “Laws” has realized the importance of a law based society along with Ideal rulers, something which he conceived as useless if the ruler is virtuous.

Education:

Theory of Social righteousness and not of social success.

Communism:

Formed on the basis that those controlling political activities should not have any economic interests while those controlling economic should have no political interests. Such resulted in the communism of property which included communism of families. This was critical for the effective functioning of the system.

But to compare Plato Communism with Marx communism is wrong because

1.          One is for the whole society and other for classes.
2.          One is an economic solution to political problem while other is a political solution to economic problem.
3.          Finally, Plato’s communism is based on material temptation while for Marx it is the growth of social evils because of accumulation of property.
4.       One is for the whole society while the other is for guardians alone.
5.       The Circumstances differ i.e BC Greek and 19th century Europe.
6.       Applicable for Athens, Greek city state while the other is an global ideology.
7.       Plato is more philosophical in approach while Marx is scientific in approach.

Plato’s republic:

Book deals with the whole gamut of Human life such as Metaphysics, Moral Philosophy, Education, human nature, Philosophy of history, Ideal state.

Man has three traits (Appetite, Spirit and reason) and so three groups of citizens (Producers, Auxiliaries and Rulers) and thus he is termed fascist and radical.

Plato and State:

 State should help citizens to help people achieve a full life.

·         State must perform for the good of all and in it lays true justice.

To say Plato did not put any checks on absolute power of ruler is not correct because of the communism and the rigorous education system. Also by attaining the highest possible virtue which the rulers have by seeing the true form of the politics it is understandable that he thought rulers to be good, at least initially. This position is changed in his “laws”.

Critique of Plato:

Anti Change – Because the moment state reaches its ideal form, there needs be no change. The path is naturalistic in the sense as to going back to tribal affairs and the rule of few wise over the many ignorant. 

Direct Points:

1. Democracy is irrational because it views unequal people as equal and in the process compromises on the effectiveness of the government.s
2. He was a philosopher for he saw beyond the mere appearances.
3. He decided that politics is a corrupted affair unless given the right direction.
4. Deductive Methodology: He decided that the state is corrupt first and then went about to form his philosophy rather than reaching a conclusion after studying, Examining and observing the available data.
5. Teleological – Everything exists for itself and constantly moves towards its desired objective.
6. Analogical – Whereby two objects are said to be same in some aspects based on their similarity in other aspects.
7. “Knowledge is Virtue”, “Public is ill, we must cure our masters” – Socrates.
8. Through basic human traits, man could learn virtue which would make him capable of attaining his end.

17th October

SC bench strikes down NJAC act:

1. Executive always has a part in defining the rights of the people through various measures such as Political [Reservation] and economic policies [Liberalization]. And the government has the power to implement them through its force machinery.
2. So it seems harmless when SC decides that executive, which already plays a huge part in rights, does not interfere in review mechanism of its very own laws [Despite what is happening around the world].
3. The need for transparency and reform the existing will always be there.
4. I don't remember any theory which validates this view point, So if you guys have any, please do ell me in the comment section.

Single point feed:

1. Pakistan - Russia : Military and gas ties are strategic for Russia. But we should also remember that India-Russia ties, though still strong, has changed in balance with India over time gaining greater position.
2. Women share in total vote percentage is becoming higher despite the low number of women representatives - Women can only represent women, all men are the problem - These statement of feminists are put to rest. In fact, the inability to form women a single unified political force despite the numbers is one of the problems of feminism. 
3. Each countries self interests make and break international relations - So the concept of enlightened self interest - Long term vs Short term - Think Japan's investments in India. India needs the same with Nepal.

Mock questions:

1. Inter and Intra religious conflicts are emerging as the main source of conflicts all around the world? Do you agree? Discuss?

October 15th

Mumbai has rejected Sena's view of Pakistan:

1. The article has terms such as people, atmosphere, acceptance - These are some of the classical concepts in paper 1 section A - Link between political institutions and political culture.
2. How the culture of society effects its political institutions and vice versa. [Think of Afghanistan [It's troubled past], India, USA.].

EU refugee flow finds echo in India:

1. There is an interesting concept in globalization and world - That we are allowing free movement of land and capital but not labor. This mismatch in the factors of production is said to be the reason for the world's problem.
2. Granted labour movement is a complicated issue with concepts sch as national interest, security coming into picture - This is considered the fault in the international economic system.

Single point feed:

1. Debate on communal ism - It is important that we understand that debate is a continuous and evolving process - Much like rights, democracy, Justice.
2. Religion cant be basis o state - This is very important factor for India - Think Kashmir and Pakistan..
3. Climate Change - Countries accusing others of damaging the environment and trying to commercialize the climate change negotiations effort - Its working because people are accepting it - The democratic candidate debate just shows this in USA. 
4. EU - Its ability to stay together and face current crisis [England, Economic, Refugee] is going to shape the future of not just a political EU but also other unions. [Think of functionalist theory once and how these crisis fits into their explanation of unions.]

14th October

Is India softening stand after push up:

1. Democracy is assumed as good because in this people's wishes are translated to the elected leaders - But often can people's wishes can be influenced by externalities such as anti-India sentiment which led to the election of CPI leader. Remember communists they still maintain a youth army which parade during a CA meeting to show case their strength.
2. Concepts such as Global village or fusion of world without borders fail  in these instances. These show that the concept of national sovereignty is still a big issue for people, even in a small country such as Nepal.

Mock question:

1. National interests triumph any moral determinants in foreign policy? Discuss. [Think- Myanmar, Nepal for India = Many examples for world].
2. 
   

13th October

Plural India comes together to condemn attack:

1. The whole article clearly shows how there is an idea of India embedded in everyone based on which they think about out actions - Whether it might be Gandhi, Democracy, Plurality.
2. Also, this forms a good point in questions relating to federalism and international relations - How Shiv sena was able to influence India's relations with pakistan mostly even when they are mostly cricket matches.

Police wean 40 Kashmiri youth from militancy:

1. This shows the age old problem of Muslim lacking a progressive leader who can portray the problems faced by the in the larger picture of Indian problems.
2. The effectiveness of such a strategy based on progressive Muslim leader or the obvious religious tensions are not to be overseen - But one should realise that in politics most of the things boils down to getting votes.

Single point feed:

1. India - Palestine : Classic determinant of India's foreign policy [Mutual peace, Negotiations] and the ability of cross political party support for some aspects of International policies [Like Nuclear weapons, Globalization].
2. Military drills, Defence ties - Strong points for realists in international politics

Mock questions:

1. International politics is tending to become more realistic. Discuss?
2. The recent visits by PM to foreign nations is said to have bolstered India's image? Do such strategy work in long term national interest? Discuss?

12th October

D-Day and Bihar elections:

1. Importance of caste calculations in Indian elections can be seen here - Can also be linked to trends in electoral behaviour.
2. One can observe the style of campaigning focused around the leaders of the party.

Limited Finance - Level playing

1. Level playing field in purely representative as theoretically people have no say after elections - So a bonus point for deliberative.
2. The ability of candidates representing people is not solely based on socio economic conditions and especially true in India.
3. EC- Its job to create a level playing field - Finance, Code of conduct, Looking into Modi's address in other states while election time Bihar.

Turkey bombing:

1. Political movement in industrialized and industrializing societies societies - I think this was in the syllabus because we all assume a trajectory of unification when society gets industrialized and hence reduces the boundaries within and out of states.
2. This very assumption is challenged in both developing and developed societies - Climate Change, Labour movements, Ethnic movements - Idealist theory of globalisation falls apart when one looks closely. 

Single point feed:

1. Keep an eye on Pakistani election - Its failure or Success can be used to support or question the Indian strategy of Pakistani relation - Even though we consider it inconsistent, an incontinent Pakistani democracy would support of inconsistency.
2. Russia-Syria-USA : Not ideological but strategic bipolarity. The usual realists theorists.
3. Indian support of Russia, Palestine's cause while emphasizing negotiated settlement - This is one of the determinants of Indian foreign policy - Negotiations and political solution.
4. Sting operations and Indian politics - I don't know how to link yet but keep in mind.